Abstract
For some time the medical treatment of glaucoma has consisted of topical β-blockers, adrenergic agents, miotics and oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs). However, the therapeutic arsenal available for the medical treatment of glaucoma has recently extended with new classes of ocular hypotensive agents i.e. prostaglandins, local CAIs and α2-adrenergic agents. β-Blockers are still the mainstay in glaucoma treatment and are first line drugs. However, even if they are applied once daily, as with timolol in gel forming solution and levobunolol, the possible cardiopulmonary adverse effects of β-blockers remain a cause for concern.
When mono therapy with β-blockers is ineffective in reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) or is hampered by adverse effects, a change of monotherapy to prostaglandins, local CAIs, (X2-adrenergic agonists (brimonidine) or to dipivalyl epinephrine is advised.
Prostaglandins, local CAIs and (X2-adrenergic agonists, such as brimonidine, may in time become first line drugs because they reduce IOP effectively and until now systemic adverse effects have rarely been reported with these agents. The development of a pro-drug of either a local CAI or an α2-adrenergic agonist with a sustained and continuous effect on IOP level, which could be applied once a day is suggested.
Because of these new developments, miotics, i.e. pilocarpine and carbachol, are recommended as second or third line drugs. The cholinesterase inhibitors are considered third line drugs as better agents with fewer local and systemic adverse effects have become available.
Oral CAIs may be used temporarily in patients with elevated IOPs e.g. post-surgery or post-laser, or continuously in patients with glaucoma resistant to other treatment.
Combining ocular hypotensive drugs is indicated when the target pressure for an individual patient cannot be reached with monotherapy. Combination therapy of β-blockers is additive with prostaglandins, topical CAIs and miotics. Prostaglandins such as latanoprost can be combined with β-blockers, adrenergic agents, local CAIs and miotics. Combinations with brimonidine or local CAIs need further investigation.
Treatment of glaucoma with the new ocular hypotensive agents, either in monotherapy or combination therapy, may provide lower IOPs and delay or postpone the need for surgery.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barany EH. Physiological and pharmacological factors influencing the resistance to aqeous outflow, transactions of the first conference on glaucoma. New York (NY): Josiah Jr Macy Foundation, 1955: 123–221
Goldmann H. L’origine de l’hypertension oculaire dans le glaucoma primitif. Ann Ocul 1951; 184: 1084–9
Bill A, Svedbergh B. Scanning electron microscopic studies of the trabecular meshwork and the canal of Schlemm: an attempt to localize the main resistance to outflow of aqueous humor in man. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1972; 5: 295–320
Grant WM. Experimantal aqueous perfusion in enucleated human eyes. Arch Ophthalmol 1963; 69: 783–801
Fatt I, Weissman B A. Physiology of the eye: an introduction to the vegetative-functions. Boston (MA): Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992: 60–76
Quigley HA, Vitale S. Models of open-angle glaucoma prevalence and incidence in the United States. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1997 Jan; 38(1): 83–91
Thylefors B, Negrel AD. The global impact of glaucoma. Bull World Health Organ 1994; 72(3): 323–6
Quigley HA, West SK, Munoz B, et al. Examination methods for glaucoma prevalence surveys. Arch Ophthalmol 1993 Oct; 111(10): 1409–15
Migdal C, Gregory W, Hitchings R. Long-term functional outcome after early surgery compared with laser and medicine in open-angle glaucoma. Ophthalmology 1994 Oct; 101(10): 1651–6
Shiose Y Prevalence and clinical aspects of low tension glaucoma. In: Henkind P, editor. Acta 24th International Congress of Ophthalmology. Philadelphia (PA): JB Lippincott, 1983
Hollows FC, Graham PA. Intra-ocular pressure, glaucoma, and glaucoma suspects in a defined population. Br J Ophthalmol 1966 Oct; 50(10): 570–86
Arkell SM, Lightman DA, Sommer A, et al. The prevalence of glaucoma among Eskimos of northwest Alaska. Arch Ophthalmol 1987 Apr; 105(4): 482–5
Kolker AE, Becker B. Ocular hypertension vs open-angle glaucoma: a different view [editorial]. Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Apr; 95(4): 586–7
Phelps CD. Ocular hypertension: to treat or not to treat? Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Apr; 95(4): 588–9
Shaffer R. ’Glaucoma suspect’ or’ ocular hypertension’? Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Apr; 95(4): 588
Leibowitz HM, Krueger DE, Maunder LR, et al. The Framingham eye study monograph: an ophthalmological and epidemiological study of cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, and visual acuity in a general population of 2631 adults, 1973–1975. Surv Ophthalmol 1980 May; 24 Suppl.: 335–610
Kahn HA, Milton RC. Alternative definitions of open-angle glaucoma: effect on prevalence and associations in the Framingham eye study. Arch Ophthalmol 1980 Dec; 98(12): 2172–7
Shield MB. Textbook of glaucoma. Baltimore (MD): William and Wilkins, 1997: 11–13
Hoyng PF, Rasker MT. Four new drugs for glaucoma: apraclonidine, brimonidine, dorzolamide and latanoprost [in Dutch]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1998; 142(39): 2138–41
Bill A. Effects of atropine and pilocarpine on aqueous humour dynamics in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca iras). Exp Eye Res 1967 Apr; 6(2): 120–5
Bill A, Phillips CI. Uveoscleral drainage of aqueous humour in human eyes. Exp Eye Res 1971 Nov; 12(3): 275–81
Tracqui A, Kintz P, Ludes B, et al. Adverse events of anti-glaucoma beta-blockers: presentation of an original HPLC determination procedure. Acta Med Leg Soc 1989; 39(1): 397–400
Tripathi RC, Yang C, Tripathi B.J. Role of receptors in the trabecular meshwork of the eye as targeted to the development of antiglaucoma therapy. Drug Develop Res 1992; 27: 191–228
Bill A, Hellsing K. Production and drainage of aqueous humor in the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca irus). Invest Ophthalmol 1965 Oct; 4(5): 920–6
Schenker HI, Yablonski ME, Podos SM, et al. Fluorophotometric study of epinephrine and timolol in human subjects. Arch Ophthalmol 1981 July; 99(7): 1212–16
Toris CB, Camras CB, Yablonski ME. Effects of PhXA41, a new prostaglandin F2 alpha analog, on aqueous humor dynamics in human eyes [see comments]. Ophthalmology 1993 Sept; 100(9): 1297–1304
Harrington DO. The pathogenesis of the glaucoma field; clinical evidence that circulatory insufficiency in the optic nerve is the primary cause of visual field loss in glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1959; 47(2): 177–85
Riva CE, Granwald JE, Sinclair SH. Laser Doppier measurement of relative blood velocity in the human optic nerve head. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1982 Feb; 22(2): 241–8
Rojanapongpun P, Drance SM, Morrison B J. Ophthalmic artery flow velocity in glaucomatous and normal subjects. Br J Ophthalmol 1993 Jan; 77(1): 25–9
Hamard P, Hamard H, Dufaux J, et al. Optic nerve head blood flow using a laser Doppler velocimeter and haemorheology in primary open angle glaucoma and normal pressure glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol 1994 Jun; 78(6): 449–53
Rankin SJ, Walman BE, Buckley AR, et al. Color Doppler imaging and spectral analysis of the optic nerve vasculature in glaucoma [see comments]. Am J Ophthalmol 1995 Jun; 119(6): 685–93
Robert Y, Steiner D, Hendrickson P. Papillary circulation dynamics in glaucoma. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1989; 227(5): 436–9
Quigley HA, Addicks EM, Green WR, et al. Optic nerve damage in human glaucoma. II: the site of injury and susceptibility to damage. Arch Ophthalmol 1981 Apr; 99(4): 635–49
Quigley HA, Addicks EM, Green WR. Optic nerve damage in human glaucoma. III: quantitative correlation of nerve fiber loss and visual field defect in glaucoma, ischemic neuropathy, papilledema, and toxic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1982 Jan; 100(1): 135–46
Quigley HA, Hohman RM, Addicks EM, et al. Morphologic changes in the lamina cribrosa correlated with neural loss in open-angle glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1983 May; 95(5): 673–91
Sommer A. Intraocular pressure and glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1989 Feb; 107(2): 186–188
Vogel R, Crick RP, Newson RB, et al. Association between intraocular pressure and loss of visual field in chronic simple glaucoma [see comments]. Br J Ophthalmol 1990 Jan; 74(1): 3–6
Quigley HA, Tielsch JM, Katz J, et al. Rate of progression in open-angle glaucoma estimated from cross-sectional prevalence of visual field damage [see comments]. Am J Ophthalmol 1996 Sept; 122(3): 355–63
O’Brien C, Schwartz B, Takamoto T, et al. Intraocular pressure and the rate of visual field loss in chronic open-angle glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1991 Apr; 111(4): 491–500
Chauhan BC, Drance SM. The relationship between intraocular pressure and visual field progression in glaucoma. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1992; 230(6): 521–6
Jampel HD. Target pressure in glaucoma therapy [review]. J Glauc 1997 Apr; 6(2): 133–8
Spaeth GL, Baez KA. Argon laser trabeculoplasty controls one third of cases of progressive, uncontrolled, open angle glaucoma for 5 years. Arch Ophthalmol 1992 Apr; 110(4): 491–4
Laser trabeculoplasty for primary open-angle glaucoma. Ophthalmology 1996 Oct; 103(10): 1706-12
Buckley SA, Reeves B, Burdon M, et al. Acute angle closure glaucoma: relative failure of YAG iridotomy in affected eyes and factors influencing outcome. Br J Ophthalmol 1994 July; 78(7): 529–33
von Weber A. Die Ursache des Glaukoms. Albr Graefes Arch Ophthalmol 1877; 23: 91–4
Kaufman PL, Barany EH. Residual pilocarpine effects on outflow facility after ciliary muscle disinsertion in the synomolgus monkey. Invest Ophthalmol 1976 July; 15(7): 558–61
Kaufman PL, Barany EH. Loss of acute pilocarpine effect on outflow facility following surgical disinsertion and retrodisplacement of the ciliary muscle from the scierai spur in the cynomolgus monkey. Invest Ophthalmol 1976 Oct; 15(10): 793–807
Crawford K, Kaufman PL. Pilocarpine antagonizes prostaglandin F2 alpha-induced ocular hypotension in monkeys. Evidence for enhancement of Uveoscleral outflow by prostaglandin F2 alpha. Arch Ophthalmol 1987 Aug; 105(8): 1112–16
Drance SM, Nash PA. The dose response of human intraocular pressure to pilocarpine. Can J Ophthalmol 1971 Jan; 6(1): 9–13
Harris LS, Galin MA. Dose response analysis of pilocarpine-induced ocular hypotension. Arch Ophthalmol 1970 Nov; 84(5): 605–8
Abramson DH, Coleman DJ, Forbes M, et al. Pilocarpine. Effect on the anterior chamber and lens thickness. Arch Ophthalmol 1972 Jun; 87(6): 615–20
Poinoosawmy D, Nagasubramanian S, Brown, et al. Effect of pilocarpine on visual acuity and on the dimensions of the cornea and anterior chamber. Br J Ophthalmol 1976 Oct; 60(10): 679
Levene RZ. Uniocular miotic therapy. Trans Am Ac Ophthalmol Otolaryng 1975 Mar; 79(2): OP376–80
Pape LG, Forbes M. Retinal detachment and miotic therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 1978 Apr; 85(4): 558–66
Beasley H, Fraunfelder FT. Retinal detachments and topical ocular miotics. Ophthalmology 1979 Jan; 86(1): 95–8
O’Brien CS, Swan KD. Carbaminoylcholinechloride in the treatment of glaucoma simplex. Arch Ophthalmol 1942; 27: 253–7
Reichert RW, Shields MB, Stewart WC. Intraocular pressure response to replacing pilocarpine with carbachol. Am J Ophthalmol 1988 Dec; 106(6): 747–8
Townsend DJ, Brubaker RF. Immediate effect of epinephrine on aqueous formation in the normal human eye as measured by fluorophotometry. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1980 Mar; 19(3): 256–66
Nagataki S, Brubaker RF. Early effect of epinephrine on aqueous formation in the normal human eye. Ophthalmology 1981 Mar; 88(3): 278–82
Erickson-Lamy KA, Nathanson JA. Epinephrine increases facility of outflow and cyclic AMP content in the human eye in vitro. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1992 Aug; 33(9): 2672–8
Obstbaum SA, Kolker AE, Phelps CD. Low-dose epinephrine. Arch Ophthalmol 1974 Aug; 92(2): 118–20
Garner LL, Johnstone WW, Ballintine EJ, et al. Effect of 2% levo-rotary epinephrine on the intraocular pressure of the glaucomatous eye. Arch Ophthalmol 1959; 62: 230
Becker B, Pettit TH, Gay AJ. Topical epinephrine therapy of open angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1961; 66: 219
Kronfeld PC. Dose-effect relationship as an aid in the evaluation of ocular hypotensive drugs. Invest Ophthalmol 1964; 3: 258
van Alphen GW. The adrenergic receptors of the intraocular muscles of the human eye. Invest Ophthalmol 1976 June; 15(6): 502–5
Kolker AE, Becker B. Epinephrine maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1968 May; 79(5): 552–62
Michels RG, Maumenee AE. Cystoid macular edema associated with topically applied epinephrine in aphakic eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 1975 Sep; 80 (3 Pt 1): 379–88
Thomas JV, Gragoudas ES, Blair NP, et al. Correlation of epinephrine use and macular edema in aphakic glaucomatous eyes. Arch Ophthalmol 1978 Apr; 96(4): 625–8
Corwin ME, Spencer WH. Conjunctival melanin depositions: a side effect of topical epinephrine therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 1963; 69: 73
Cashwell LF, Shield MB, Reed JW. Adrenochrome pigmentation. Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Mar; 95(3): 514–15
Green WR, Kaufer GJ, Dubroff S. Black cornea: a complication of topical use of epinephrine. Ophthalmologica 1967; 154(2): 88–95
Madge GE, Geeraets WJ, Guerry D. Black cornea secondary to topical epinephrine. Am J Ophthalmol 1971 Jan; 71(1 Suppl. 5) 402–5
Kaback MB, Podos SM, Harbin TSJ, et al. The effects of dipivalyl epinephrine on the eye. Am J Ophthalmol 1976 June; 81(6): 768–72
Mandell AI, Stentz F, Kitabchi AE. Dipivalyl epinephrine: a new pro-drug in the treatment of glaucoma. Ophthalmology 1978 Mar; 85(3): 268–75
Kass MA, Mandell AI, Goldberg I, et al. Dipivefrin and epinephrine treatment of elevated intraocular pressure: a comparative study. Arch Ophthalmol 1979 Oct; 97(10): 1865–6
Krieglstein GK, Leydhecker W. The dose-response relationships of dipivalyl epinephrine in open-angle glaucoma. Albr Graefes Arch Ophthalmol 1978 Feb; 205(3): 141–6
Bill A, Heilmann K. Ocular effects of clonidine in cats and monkeys (Macaca irus). Exp Eye Res 1975 Nov; 21(5): 481–8
Krieglstein GK, Gramer E. The response of ophthalmic arterial pressure to topically applied clonidine. Albr Graefes Arch Ophthalmol 1978 Jul; 207(1): 1–5
Harrison R, Kaufmann CS. Clonidine: effects of a topically administered solution on intraocular pressure and blood pressure in open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Aug; 95(8): 1368–73
Heilmann K. Studies on the effect of Catapresan on the intraocular pressure. 3 [in German]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1972 Oct; 161(4): 425–30
Thumm HW, Jahnke R. Der einfluss vom clonidin auf den augeninnendruck und die pupillenweite. In: Merte HJ, K Heilmann, editors. Clonidin in der Augenheilkunde. Stuttgaat: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1974
Gharagozloo NZ, Relf SJ, Brubaker RF. Aqueous flow is reduced by the alpha-adrenergic agonist, apraclonidine hydrochloride (ALO 2145). Ophthalmology 1988 Sep; 95(9): 1217–20
Lee DA, Topper JE, Brubaker RF. Effect of clonidine on aqueous humor flow in normal human eyes. Exp Eye Res 1984 Mar; 38(3): 239–46
Toris CB, Tafoya ME, Camras CB, et al. Effects of apraclonidine on aqueous humor dynamics in human eyes. Ophthalmology 1995 Mar; 102(3): 456–61
Robin AL. Short-term effects of unilateral 1% apraclonidine therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 1988 Jul; 106(7): 912–15
Abrams DA, Robin AL, Pollack IP, et al. The safety and efficacy of topical 1% ALO 2145 (p-aminoclonidine hydrochloride) in normal volunteers. Arch Ophthalmol 1987 Sept; 105(9): 1205–7
Stewart WC, Laibovitz R, Horwitz B, et al. A 90-day study of the efficacy and side effects of 0.25% and 0.5% apraclonidine vs 0.5% timolol. Apraclonidine Primary Therapy Study Group. Arch Ophthalmol 1996 Aug; 114(8): 938–42
Koskela T, Brubaker RF. Apraclonidine and timolol: combined effects in previously untreated normal subjects. Arch Ophthalmol 1991 Jun; 109(6): 804–6
Nagasubramanian S, Hitchings RA, Demailly P, et al. Comparison of apraclonidine and timolol in chronic open-angle glaucoma. A three-month study. Ophthalmology 1993 Sep; 100(9): 1318–23
Krupin T, Stank T, Feitl ME. Apraclonidine pretreatment decreases the acute intraocular pressure rise after laser trabeculoplasty or iridotomy. J Glauc 1992; 1: 79
Holmwood PC, Chase RD, Krupin T, et al. Apraclonidine and argon laser trabeculoplasty [see comments]. Am J Ophthalmol 1992 Jul; 114(1): 19–22
Araie M, Ishi K. Effects of apraclonidine on intraocular pressure and blood-aqueous barrier permeability after phacoemulsification and intraocular lens implantation. Am J Ophthalmol 1993 Jul; 116(1): 67–71
Robin AL. Effect of topical apraclonidine on the frequency of intraocular pressure elevations after combined extracapsular cataract extraction and trabeculectomy. Ophthalmology 1993 May; 100(5): 628–33
Silverstone DE, Brint SF, Olander KW, et al. Prophylactic use of apraclonidine for intraocular pressure increase after Nd: YAG capsulotomies [see comments]. Am J Ophthalmol 1992 Apr; 113(4): 401–5
Butler P, Mannschreck M, Lin S, et al. Clinical experience with the long-term use of 1 % apraclonidine: incidence of allergic reactions. Arch Ophthalmol 1995 Mar; 113(3): 293–6
Stewart WC, Laibovitz R, Horwitz B, et al. A 90-day study of the efficacy and side effects of 0.25% and 0.5% apraclonidine vs 0.5% timolol (Apraclonidine Primary Therapy Study Group). Arch Ophthalmol 1996 Aug; 114(8): 938–42
Stewart WC, Ritch R, Shin DH, et al. The efficacy of apraclonidine as an adjunct to timolol therapy (Apraclonidine Adjunctive Therapy Study Group) [published errata appear in Arch Ophthalmol 1995 Sep; 113(9): 1112 and 1995 Nov; 113(11): 1465. Arch Ophthalmol 1995 Mar; 113(3): 287–92
Wilkerson M, Lewis RA, Shields MB. Follicular conjunctivitis associated with apraclonidine. Am J Ophthalmol 1991 Jan; 111(1): 105–6
Jampel HD, Robin AL, Quigley HA, et al. Apraclonidine: a one-week dose-response study. Arch Ophthalmol 1988 Aug; 106(8): 1069–73
Coleman AL, Robin AL, Pollack IP, et al. Cardiovascular and intraocular pressure effects and plasma concentrations of apraclonidine. Arch Ophthalmol 1990 Sep; 108(9): 1264–7
Burke J, Schwartz M. Preclinical evaluation of brimonidine. Surv Ophthalmol 1996 Nov; 41 Suppl. 1: S9–18
Toris CB, Gleason ML, Camras CB, et al. Effects of brimonidine on aqueous humor dynamics in human eyes. Arch Ophthalmol 1995 Dec; 113(12): 1514–17
Wen R, Cheng T, Li Y, et al. Alpha 2-adrenergic agonists induce basic fibroblast growth factor expression in photoreceptors in vivo and ameliorate light damage. J Neurosci 1996 Oct; 16(19): 5986–92
Walters TR. Development and use of brimonidine in treating acute and chronic elevations of intraocular pressure: a review of safety, efficacy, dose response, and dosing studies. Surv Ophthalmol 1996 Nov; 41 Suppl. 1: S19–26
Derick RJ, Robin AL, Walters TR, et al. Brimonidine tartrate: a one-month dose response study [published erratum appears in Ophthalmology 1997 Mar; 104(3): 346]. Ophthalmology 1997 Jan; 104(1): 131-6
Schuman JS. Clinical experience with brimonidine 0.2% and timolol 0.5% in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Surv Ophthalmol 1996 Nov; 41 Suppl. 1: S27–37
Schuman JS, Horwitz B, Choplin NT, et al. A 1-year study of brimonidine twice daily in glaucoma and ocular hypertension: a controlled, randomized, multicenter clinical trial (Chronic Brimonidine Study Group). Arch Ophthalmol 1997 Jul; 115(7): 847–52
Serie JB. A comparison of the safety and efficacy of twice daily brimonidine 0.2% versus betaxolol 0.25% in subjects with elevated intraocular pressure: the Brimonidine Study Group III. Surv Ophthalmol 1996 Nov; 41 Suppl. 1: S39–47
LeBlanc RP. Twelve month result of an ongoing randomized trial comparing brimonidine tartraat 0.2% and timolol 0.5% given twice daily in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Ophthalmology 1998 Oct; 105(10): 1960–7
Phillips CI, Howitt G, Rowlands DJ. Propranolol as ocular hypotensive agent. Br J Ophthalmol 1967 Apr; 51(4): 222–6
Coakes RL, Brubaker RF. The mechanism of timolol in lowering intraocular pressure in the normal eye. Arch Ophthalmol 1978 Nov; 96(11): 2045–8
Zimmerman TJ, Harbin R, Pett M, et al. Timolol and facility of outflow. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1977 Jul; 16(7): 623–4
Sonntag JR, Brindley GO, Shields MB. Effect of timolol therapy on outflow facility. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1978 Mar; 17(3): 293–6
Topper JE, Brubaker RF. Effects of timolol, epinephrine, and acetazolamide on aqueous flow during sleep. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1985 Oct; 26(10): 1315–19
Zimmerman TJ, Kaufman HE. Timolol: a beta-adrenergic blocking agent for the treatment of glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Apr; 95(4): 601–4
Zimmerman TJ, Kaufman HE. Timolol, dose response and duration of action. Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Apr; 95(4): 605–7
Zimmerman TJ, Canale P. Timolol: further observations. Ophthalmology 1979 Jan; 86(1): 166–9
Ritch R, Hargett NA, Podos SM. The effect of 1.5% timolol maleate on intraocular pressure. Acta Ophthalmol 1978 Feb; 56(1): 6–10
Boger WP, Steinert RF, Thomas JV. Timolol in the therapy of ‘ocular hypertension’. Surv Ophthalmol 1980 Nov; 25(3): 195–202
Boger WP, Puliafito CA, Steinert RF, et al. Long-term experience with timolol ophthalmic solution in patients with open-angle glaucoma. Ophthalmology 1978 Mar; 85(3): 259–67
Radius RL, Diamond GR, Pollack IP, et al. Timolol: a new drug for management of chronic simple glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1978 Jun; 96(6): 1003–8
Obstbaum SA, Galin MA, Katz IM. Trimolol: effect on intraocular pressure in chronic open-angle glaucoma. Ann Ophthalmol 1978 Oct; 10(10): 1347–51
Lin LL, Galin MA, Obstbaum SA, et al. Longterm timolol therapy. Surv Ophthalmol 1979 May; 23(6): 377–80
Wilson RP, Kanal N, Spaeth GL. Timolol: its effectiveness in different types of glaucoma. Ophthalmology 1979 Jan; 86(1): 43–50
Boger WP. Timolol: short term ‘escape’ and long term ‘drift’ [editorial]. Ann Ophthalmol 1979 Aug; 11(8): 1239–42
Steinert RF, Thomas JV, Boger WP. Long-term drift and continued efficacy after multiyear timolol therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 1981 Jan; 99(1): 100–3
Bischoff P. Experiences with timolol in treatment of glaucoma. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1978 Aug; 173(2): 202–207
Oksala A, Salminen L. Tachyphylaxis in timolol therapy for chronic glaucoma. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1980 Oct; 177(4): 451–4
Mills KB. Blind randomised non-crossover long-term trial comparing topical timolol 0.25% with timolol 0.5% in the treatment of simple chronic glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol 1983 Apr; 67(4): 216–19
Katz IM, Berger ET. Effects of iris pigmentation on response of ocular pressure to timolol. Surv Ophthalmol 1979 May; 23(6): 395–8
Salminen L, Imre G, Huupponen R. The effect of ocular pigmentation on intraocular pressure response to timolol. Acta Ophthalmologica 1985; 173 Suppl.: 15–18
McMahon CD, Shaffer RN, Hoskins HDJ, et al. Adverse effects experienced by patients taking timolol. Am J Ophthalmol 1979 Oct; 88(4): 736–8
Van Buskirk EM. Adverse reactions from timolol administration. Ophthalmology 1980 May; 87(5): 447–50
Bonomi L, Zavarise G, Noya E, et al. Effects of timolol maleate on tear flow in human eyes. Albr Graefes Arch Ophthalmol 1980; 213(1): 19–22
Coakes RL, Mackie IA, Seal DV Effects of long-term treatment with timolol on lacrimal gland function. Br J Ophthalmol 1981 Sep; 65(9): 603–5
Fraunfelder FT. Interim report: national registry of possible drug-induced ocular side effects. Ophthalmology 1980 Feb; 87(2): 87–90
Nelson WL, Fraunfelder FT, Sills JM, et al. Adverse respiratory and cardiovascular events attributed to timolol ophthalmic solution, 1978–1985. Am J Ophthalmol 1986 Nov; 102(5): 606–11
Diggory P, Cassels-Brown A, Vail A, et al. Avoiding unsuspected respiratory side-effects of topical timolol with cardio-selective or sympathomimetic agents [published erratum appears in Lancet 1995 Jul; 346(8970): 322]. Lancet 1995 Jun; 345(8965): 1604–6
Sadiq SA, Fielding K, Vernon SA. The effect of timolol drops on respiratory function. Eye 1998; 12 (Pt 3a): 386–9
Shaivitz SA. Timolol and myasthenia gravis. JAMA 1979 Oct; 242(15): 1611–12
Coppeto JR. Timolol-associated myasthenia gravis. Am J Ophthalmol 1984 Aug; 98(2): 244–5
Velde TM, Kaiser FE. Ophthalmic timolol treatment causing altered hypoglycemic response in a diabetic patient. Arch Intern Med 1983 Aug; 143(8): 1627
Zimmerman TJ, Sharir M, Nardin GF, et al. Therapeutic index of pilocarpine, carbachol, and timolol with nasolacrimal occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 1992 Jul; 114(1): 1–7
Reiss GR, Brubaker RF. The mechanism of betaxolol, a new ocular hypotensive agent. Ophthalmology 1983 Nov; 90(11): 1369–72
Caldwell DR, Salisbury CR, Guzek JP. Effects of topical betaxolol in ocular hypertensive patients. Arch Ophthalmol 1984 Apr; 102(4): 539–40
Feghali JG, Kaufman PL. Decreased intraocular pressure in the hypertensive human eye with betaxolol, a beta 1-adrenergic antagonist. Am J Ophthalmol 1985 Dec; 100(6): 777–82
Stewart RH, Kimbrough RL, Ward RL. Betaxolol vs timolol: a six-month double-blind comparison. Arch Ophthalmol 1986 Jan; 104(1): 46–8
Radius RL. Use of betaxolol in the reduction of elevated intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol 1983 Jun; 101(6): 898–900
Collignon-Brach J. Long-term effect of ophthalmic beta-adrenoceptor antagonists on intraocular pressure and retinal sensitivity in primary open-angle glaucoma. Curr Eye Res 1992 Jan; 11(1): 1–3
Messmer C, Flammer J, Stumpfig D. Influence of betaxolol and timolol on the visual fields of patients with glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1991 Dec; 112(6): 678–81
Kaiser HJ, Hammer J, Messmer C. Thirty month visual field follow up of glaucoma patients treated with beta blockers. J Glauc 1992; 1: 153
Hoste AM, Sys SU. The relaxant action of betaxolol on isolated bovine retinal microarteries. Curr Eye Res 1994 Jul; 13(7): 483–7
Hoste AM. Ca2+ channel blocking activity of propranolol and betaxolol in isolated bovine retinal microartery. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1998; 32(3): 390–6
Schoene RB, Abuan T, Ward RL, et al. Effects of topical betaxolol, timolol, and placebo on pulmonary function in asthmatic bronchitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1984 Jan; 97(1): 86–92
Dunn TL, Gerber MJ, Shen AS, et al. The effect of topical ophthalmic instillation of timolol and betaxolol on lung function in asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986 Feb; 133(2): 264–8
Harris LS, Greenstein SH, Bloom AF. Respiratory difficulties with betaxolol. Am J Ophthalmol 1986 Aug; 102(2): 274–5
Roholt PC. Betaxolol and restrictive airway disease: case report. Arch Ophthalmol 1987 Sep; 105(9): 1172
Nelson WL, Kuritsky JN. Early postmarketing surveillance of betaxolol hydrochloride, Sept 1985–Sept 1986. Am J Ophthalmol 1987 Apr; 103(4): 592
Ball S. Congestive heart failure from betaxolol: case report. Arch Ophthalmol 1987 Mar; 105(3): 320
Le Jeunne C, Munera Y, Hugues FC. Systemic effects of three beta-blocker eyedrops: comparison in healthy volunteers of beta 1- and beta 2-adrenoreceptor inhibition. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990 May; 47(5): 578–83
Vuori ML, Ali-Melkkila T, Kaila T, et al. Beta 1- and beta 2-antagonist activity of topically applied betaxolol and timolol in the systemic circulation. Acta Ophthalmol 1993 Oct; 71(5): 682–5
Orlando RG. Clinical depression associated with betaxolol. Am J Ophthalmol 1986 Aug; 102(2): 275
Lynch MG, Whitson JT, Brown RH, et al. Topical beta-blocker therapy and central nervous system side effects: a preliminary study comparing betaxolol and timolol. Arch Ophthalmol 1988 Jul; 106(7): 908–11
Cinotti A, Cinotti D, Grant W, et al. Levobunolol vs timolol for open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol 1985 Jan; 99(1): 11–17
Berson FG, Cohen HB, Foerster RJ, et al. Levobunolol compared with timolol for the long-term control of elevated intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol 1985 Mar; 103(3): 379–82
Boozman FW, Carriker R, Foerster R, et al. Long-term evaluation of 0.25% levobunolol and timolol for therapy for elevated intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol 1988 May; 106(5): 614–18
The Levobunolol Study Group. Levobunolol: abeta-adrenoceptor antagonist effective in the long-term treatment of glaucoma [appended]. Ophthalmology 1985 Sep; 92(9): 1271–6
Geyer O, Lazar M, Novack GD, et al. Levobunolol compared with timolol: a four-year study. Br J Ophthalmol 1988 Dec; 72(12): 892–6
The Levobunolol Study Group. Levobunolol: a four-year study of efficacy and safety in glaucoma treatment. Ophthalmology 1989 May; 96(5): 642–5
Silverstone D, Zimmerman T, Choplin N, et al. Evaluation of once-daily levobunolol 0.25% and timolol 0.25% therapy for increased intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol 1991 Jul; 112(1): 56–60
Wandel T, Fishman D, Novack GD, et al. Ocular hypotensive efficacy of 0.25% levobunolol instilled once daily. Ophthalmology 1988 Feb; 95(2): 252–5
Derick RJ, Robin AL, Tielsch J, et al. Once-daily versus twice-daily levobunolol (0.5%) therapy: acrossover study. Ophthalmology 1992 Mar; 99(3): 424–9
Frishman WH, Covey S. Penbutolol and carteolol: two new beta-adrenergic blockers with partial agonism [review]. J Clin Pharmacol 1990 May; 30(5): 412–21
Hirota A, Mishima H, Kiuchi Y, et al. Effect of topical 8-hydroxy carteolol on intraocular pressure and melanin granules [in Japanese]. Acta Soc Ophthalmol Jpn 1991 Aug; 95(8): 752–7
Coulangeon LM, Sole M, Menerath JM, et al. Aqueous humor flow measured by fluorophotometry. A comparative study of the effect of various beta-blocker eyedrops in patients with ocular hypertension [in French]. Ophtalmologie 1990 Mar; 4(2): 156–61
Scoville B, Mueller B, White BG, et al. A double-masked comparison of carteolol and timolol in ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol 1988 Feb; 105(2): 150–4
Stewart WC, Shields MB, Allen RC, et al. A 3-month comparison of 1% and 2% carteolol and 0.5% timolol in open-angle glaucoma. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1991; 229(3): 258–61
Tsuchisaka H, Kin K, Matsumoto S, et al. Multi institutional evaluation of timolol and carteolol for glaucomas. Ganka Rinsho Iho 1991; 85: 1136–40
Horie T, Takahashi O, Shirato S, et al. Comparison of ocular hypotensive effects of topical timolol and carteolol. Jpn J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 36: 1065–70
Mills KB, Raines M, Joyce P. A single blind, stratified, randomised, non crossover trial comparing carteolol 1% with timolol 0.25% in the long term management of glaucoma. Br J Clin Prac 1987; 41 Suppl. 51: 10–12
Schnarr KD. Comparative multicenter study of carteolol eyedrops with other beta blockers in 768 patients under normal conditions. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1988 Feb; 192(2): 167–72
Flury H, Tournoux A, Martenet AC. Tolerance and pharmacologic effectiveness of antiglaucoma eyedrops. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1986 Jun; 188(6): 573–5
van Brummelen P. The relevance of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity for beta-blocker-induced changes in plasma lipids. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1983; 5 Suppl. 1: S51–5
Freedman SF, Freedman NJ, Shields MB, et al. Effects of ocular carteolol and timolol on plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level. Am J Ophthalmol 1993 Nov; 116(5): 600–11
Battershill PE, Sorkin EM. Ocular metipranolol: a preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Drugs 1988 Nov; 36(5): 601–15
Dausch D, Brewitt H, Edelhoff R. Metipranolol eyedrops: clinical suitability in the treatment of chronic open angle glaucoma. In: Merte HJ, editor. Metipranolol. Wien: Springer-Verlag, 1983
Serie JB, Lustgarten JS, Podos SM. A clinical trial of metipranolol, a noncardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist, in ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol 1991 Sept; 112(3): 302–7
Merte HJ, Stryz JR, Mertz M. Comparative studies of initial pressure reduction using 0.3% metipranolol and 0.25% timolol in eyes with wide-angle glaucoma. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1983 Apr; 182(4): 286–9
Schmitz-Valckenberg P, Jonas J, Brambring DF. Reductions in pressure with metipranolol 0.1%. ZPrakt Augenhkd 1984; 5: 171–5
Muller O, Knobel HR. Effectiveness and tolerance of metipranolol: results of a multi-center long-term study in Switzerland. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1986 Jan; 188(1): 62–3
Ecoffet M, Demailly P. Mid-term results of a double-blind study comparing metipranolol to timolol in the treatment of primary open-angle glaucoma. J Fr Ophtalmol 1987; 10(6–7): 451–4
Bleckmann H, Pham Duy T, Grajewski O. Therapeutic efficacy of metipranolol eyedrops 0.3% versus timolol eyedrops 0.25%: a double blind cross over study. In: Merte HJ, editor. Metipranolol. Wien: Springer-Verlag, 1983
Kruse W. Metipranolol in glaucoma therapy. Der Augenartz 1983; 3: 168–72
Denffer H. Efficacy and tolerance of metipranolol: results of a multi center long term study. In: Merte HJ, editor. Metipranolol. Wien: Springer-Verlag, 1983
Krieglstein GK, Novack GD, Voepel E, et al. Levobunolol and metipranolol: comparative ocular hypotensive efficacy, safety, and comfort. Br J Ophthalmol 1987 Apr; 71(4): 250–3
Akingbehin T, Villada JR. Metipranolol-associated granulomatous anterior uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1991 Sep; 75(9): 519–23
Schultz JS, Hoenig JA, Charles H. Possible bilateral anterior uveitis secondary to metipranolol (optipranolol) therapy. Arch Ophthalmol 1993 Dec; 111(12): 1606–7
Melles RB, Wong IG. Metipranolol-associated granulomatous iritis. Am J Ophthalmol 1994 Dec; 118(6): 712–15
Akingbehin T, Villada JR, Walley T. Metipranolol-induced adverse reactions: I. The rechallenge study. Eye 1992; 6 (Pt 3): 277–9
Burvenich H. Metipranolol associated granulomatous anterior uveitis: not so uncommon as thought. Bull Soc Belg Opthalmol 1995; 257: 63–6
Watanabe TM, Hodes BL. Bilateral anterior uveitis associated withabrandof metipranolol. Arch Ophthalmol 1997 Mar; 115(3): 421–2
Patel NP, Patel KH, Moster MR, et al. Metipranolol-associated nongranulomatous anterior uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1997; 123(6): 843–4
Friedland BR, Maren TH. Pharmacology of the eye. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984
Wistrand PJ, Schenholm M, Lonnerholm G. Carbonic anhydrase isoenzymes CA I and CA II in the human eye. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1986 Mar; 27(3): 419–28
Friedland BR, Mallonee J, Anderson DR. Short-term dose response characteristics of acetazolamide in man. Arch Ophthalmol 1977 Oct; 95(10): 1809–12
Becker B. Decrease in intraocular pressure in man by acarbonic anhydrase inhibitor (Diamox). Am J Ophthalmol 1954; 37: 13–17
Dailey RA, Brubaker RF, Bourne WM. The effects of timolol maleate and acetazolamide on the rate of aqueous formation in normal human subjects. Am J Ophthalmol 1982 Feb; 93(2): 232–7
Grant WM, Trotter RR. Diamox (acetazolamide): in the treatment of glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1954; 51: 735–9
Dahlen K, Epstein DL, Grant WM, et al. A repeated dose-response study of methazolamide in glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1978 Dec; 96(12): 2214–18
Fraunfelder FT, Meyer SM, Bagby Jr GC, et al. Hematologic reactions to carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Am J Ophthalmol 1985 July; 100(1): 79–81
Wang RF, Serie JB, Podos SM, et al. MK-507 (L-671,152), a topically active carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, reduces aqueous humor production in monkeys. Arch Ophthalmol 1991 Sep; 109(9): 1297–9
Sugrue MF, Mallorga P, Schwam H, et al. A comparison of L-671,152 and MK-927, two topically effective ocular hypotensive carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, in experimental animals. Curr Eye Res 1990 Jun; 9(6): 607–15
Strahlman E, Tipping R, Vogel R. A double-masked, randomized 1-year study comparing dorzolamide (Trusopt), timolol, and betaxolol (International Dorzolamide Study Group). Arch Ophthalmol 1995 Aug; 113(8): 1009–16
Maus TL, Larsson LI, McLaren JW, et al. Comparison of dorzolamide and acetazolamide as suppressors of aqueous humor flow in humans. Arch Ophthalmol 1997 Jan; 115(1): 45–9
Chrisp P, Sorkin EM. Ocular carteolol: a review of its pharmacological properties, and therapeutic use in glaucoma and ocular hypertension [published erratum appears in Drugs Aging 1994 Jan; 4(1): 62]. Drugs Aging 1992 Jan; 2(1): 58-77
Kaminski S, Hommer A, Koyuncu D, et al. Influence of dorzolamide on corneal thickness, endothelial cell count and corneal sensibility. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1998 Feb; 76(1): 78–9
Lass JH, Khosrof SA, Laurence JK, et al. A double-masked, randomized, 1-year study comparing the corneal effects of dorzolamide, timolol, and betaxolol (Dorzolamide Corneal Effects Study Group). Arch Ophthalmol 1998 Aug; 116(8): 1003–10
Egan CA, Hodge DO, McLaren JW, et al. Effect of dorzolamide on corneal endothelial function in normal human eyes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1998 Jan; 39(1): 23–9
Konowal A, Morrison JC, Brown SVL, et al. Irreversible corneal decompensation in patients treated with topical dorzolamide. Am J Ophthalmol 1999 Apr; 127(4): 403–6
Silver LH. Clinical efficacy and safety of brinzolamide (Azopt), a new topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitor for primary open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol 1998 Sep; 126(3): 400–8
Camras CB, Bito LZ, Eakins KE. Reduction of intraocular pressure by prostaglandins applied topically to the eyes of conscious rabbits. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1977 Dec; 16(12): 1125–34
Hoyng PF, de Jong N. Iloprost, a stable prostacyclin analog, reduces intraocular pressure. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1987 Mar; 28(3): 470–6
Groeneboer MC, Hoyng PF, Kuizenga A. Prostaglandin F2 alpha isopropyl ester versus iloprost phenacyl ester in rabbit and beagle eyes. Curr Eye Res 1989 Feb; 8(2): 131–8
Camras CB, Schumer RA, Marsk A, et al. Intraocular pressure reduction with PhXA34, a new prostaglandin analogue, in patients with ocular hypertension. Arch Ophthalmol 1992 Dec; 110(12): 1733–8
Alm A, Villumsen J. PhXA34, a new potent ocular hypotensive drug: a study on dose-response relationship and on aqueous humor dynamics in healthy volunteers [see comments]. Arch Ophthalmol 1991 Nov; 109(11): 1564–8
Alm A, Villumsen J, Tornquist P, et al. Intraocular pressure-reducing effect of PhXA41 in patients with increased eye pressure: a one-month study [see comments]. Ophthalmology 1993 Sep; 100(9): 1312–16
Hotehama Y, Mishima HK. Clinical efficacy of PhXA34 and PhXA41, two novel prostaglandin F2 alpha-isopropyl ester analogues for glaucoma treatment. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1993; 37(3): 259–69
Nagasubramanian S, Sheth GP, Hitchings RA, et al. Intraocular pressure-reducing effect of PhXA41 in ocular hypertension: comparison of dose regimens. Ophthalmology 1993 Sep; 100(9): 1305–11
Racz P, Ruzsonyi MR, Nagy ZT, et al. Maintained intraocular pressure reduction with once-a-day application of a new prostaglandin F2 alpha analogue (PhXA41): an in-hospital, placebo-controlled study. Arch Ophthalmol 1993 May; 111(5): 657–61
Alm A, Stjernschantz J. Effects on intraocular pressure and side effects of 0.005% latanoprost applied once daily, evening or morning: a comparison with timolol (Scandinavian Latanoprost Study Group). Ophthalmology 1995 Dec; 102(12): 1743–52
Mishima HK, Kiuchi Y, Takamatsu M, et al. Circadian intraocular pressure management with latanoprost: diurnal and nocturnal intraocular pressure reduction and increased uveoscleral outflow [review]. Surv Ophthalmol 1997 Feb; 41 Suppl. 2: S139–44
Camras CB. Comparison of latanoprost and timolol in patients with ocular hypertension and glaucoma: a six-month masked, multicenter trial in the United States (The United States Latanoprost Study Group). Ophthalmology 1996 Jan; 103(1): 138–47
Watson P, Stjernschantz J. A six-month, randomized, double-masked study comparing latanoprost with timolol in open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension (The Latanoprost Study Group). Ophthalmology 1996 Jan; 103(1): 126–37
Mishima HK, Masuda K, Kitazawa Y, et al. A comparison of latanoprost and timolol in primary open-angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension: a 12-week study. Arch Ophthalmol 1996 Aug; 114(8): 929–32
Camras CB, Alm A, Watson P, et al. Latanoprost, a prostaglandin analog, for glaucoma therapy: efficacy and safety after 1 year of treatment in 198 patients (Latanoprost Study Groups). Ophthalmology 1996 Nov; 103(11): 1916–24
Rulo AH, Greve EL, Geijssen HC, et al. Reduction of intraocular pressure with treatment of latanoprost once daily in patients with normal-pressure glaucoma [see comments]. Ophthalmology 1996 Aug; 103(8): 1276–82
Fechtner RD, Khouri AS, Zimmerman TJ, et al. Anterior uveitis associated with latanoprost. Am J Ophthalmol 1998 July; 126(1): 37–41
Hoyng PF, Rulo AH, Grève EL, et al. Fluorescein angiographic evaluation of the effect of latanoprost treatment on blood-retinal barrier integrity: a review of studies conducted on pseudophakic glaucoma patients and on phakic and aphakic monkeys. Surv Ophthalmol 1997 Feb; 41 Suppl. 2: S83–8
Warwar RE, Bullock JD, Ballal D. Cystoid macular edema and anterior uveitis associated with latanoprost use: experience and incidence in a retrospective review of 94 patients. Ophthalmology 1998 Feb; 105(2): 263–8
Moroi SE, Gottfredsdottir MS, Schteingart MT, et al. Cystoid macular edema associated with latanoprost therapy in a case series of patients with glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Ophthalmology 1999 May; 106(5): 1024–9
Camras CB. CME and anterior uveitis with latanoprost use. Ophthalmology 1998 Nov; 105(11): 1978–81
Thorne JE, Maguire AM, Lanciano R. CME and anterior uveitis with latanoprost use. Ophthalmology 1998 Nov; 105(11): 1981–3
Ayyala RS, Cruz DA, Margo CE, et al. Cystoid macular edema associated with latanoprost in aphakic and pseudophakic eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 1998 Oct; 126(4): 602–4
Callanan D, Fellman RL, Savage JA. Latanoprost-associated cystoid macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 1998 Jul; 126(1): 134–5
Selen G, Stjernschantz J, Resul B. Prostaglandin-induced iridial pigmentation in primates. Surv Ophthalmol 1997 Feb; 41 Suppl. 2: S125–8
Wistrand PJ, Stjernschantz J, Olsson K. The incidence and time-course of latanoprost-induced iridial pigmentation as a function of eye color. Surv Ophthalmol 1997 Feb; 41 Suppl. 2: S129–38
Johnstone MA. Hypertrichosis and increased pigmentation of eyelashes and adjacent hair in the region of the ipsilateral eyelids of patients treated with unilateral topical latanoprost. Am J Ophthalmol 1997 Oct; 124(4): 544–7
Wand M. Latanoprost and hyperpigmentation of eyelashes [letter]. Arch Ophthalmol 1997 Sep; 115(9): 1206–8
Watson PG. Latanoprost: two years’ experience of its use in the United Kingdom (Latanoprost Study Group). Ophthalmology 1998 Jan; 105(1): 82–7
Hedner J, Svedmyr N, Lunde H, et al. The lack of respiratory effects of the ocular hypotensive drug latanoprost in patients with moderate-steroid treated asthma. Surv Ophthalmol 1997 Feb; 41 Suppl. 2: S111–15
Taniguchi T, Haque MS, Sugiyama K, et al. Ocular hypotensive mechanism of topical isopropyl unoprostone, a novel prostaglandin metabolite-related drug, in rabbits. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 1996; 12(4): 489–98
Sakurai M, Araie M, Oshika T, et al. Effects of topical application of UF-021, a novel prostaglandin derivative, on aqueous humor dynamics in normal human eyes [published erratum appears in Jpn J Ophthalmol 1992; 36(4): 491]. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1991; 35(2): 156–65
Sakurai M, Araie M, Oshika T, et al. Effects of topical application of UF-021, a novel prostaglandin-related compound, on aqueous humor dynamics in rabbit. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1993; 37(3): 252–8
Azuma I, Masuda K, Kitazawa Y, et al. Double-masked comparative study of UF-021 and timolol ophthalmic solutions in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1993; 37(4): 514–25
Motulsky HJ, Cunningham EM, DeBlasi A, et al. Desensitization and redistribution of beta-adrenergic receptors on human mononuclear leukocytes. Am J Physiol 1986 May; 250 (5 Pt 1): E583–90
Kass MA. Efficacy of combining timolol with other anti-glaucoma medications. Surv Ophthalmol 1983 Dec; 28 Suppl.: 274–9
Keates EU. Evaluation of timolol maleate combination therapy in chronic open-angle glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1979 Sep; 88 (3 Pt 2): 565–71
Airaksinen PJ, Valkonen R, Stenborg T, et al. A double-masked study of timolol and pilocarpine combined. Am J Ophthalmol 1987 Dec; 104(6): 587–90
Maclure GM, Vogel R, Sturm A, et al. Effect on the 24-hour diurnal curve of intraocular pressure of a fixed ratio combination of timolol 0.5% and pilocarpine 2% in patients with COAG not controlled on timolol 0.5%. Br J Ophthalmol 1989 Oct; 73(10): 827–31
Scharrer A, Ober M. Metipranolol 0.1% and pilocarpine 2% as a fixed combination compared to each substance alone in the treatment of glaucoma: a controlled, randomized clinical study comparing the intraindividual effects and tolerance. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1986 Dec; 189(6): 450–5
Tsoy EA, Meekins BB, Shields MB. Comparison of two treatment schedules for combined timolol and dipivefrin therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 1986 Sep; 102(3): 320–4
Alexander DW, Berson FG, Epstein DL. A clinical trial of timolol and epinephrine in the treatment of primary open-angle glaucoma. Ophthalmology 1988 Feb; 95(2): 247–51
Drance SM, Douglas GR, Wijsman KJ, et al. Adrenergic and adrenolytic effects on intraocular pressure. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1991; 229(1): 50–1
Allen RC, Robin AL, Long D, et al. A combination of levobunolol and dipivefrin for the treatment of glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1988 Jul; 106(7): 904–7
Weinreb RN, Ritch R, Kushner FH. Effect of adding betaxolol to dipivefrin therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 1986 Feb; 101(2): 196–8
Allen RC, Epstein DL. Additive effect of betaxolol and epinephrine in primary open angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1986 Aug; 104(8): 1178–84
Berson FG, Epstein DL. Separate and combined effects of timolol maleate and acetazolamide in open-angle glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol 1981 Dec; 92(6): 788–91
Kass MA, Korey M, Gordon M, et al. Timolol and acetazolamide. A study of concurrent administration. Arch Ophthalmol 1982 Jun; 100(6): 941–2
Strohmaier K, Snyder E, Dubiner H, et al. The efficacy and safety of the dorzolamide-timolol combination versus the concomitant administration of its components. Ophthalmology 1998 Oct; 105(10): 1936–44
Boyle JE, Ghosh K, Gieser DK, et al. A randomized trial comparing the dorzolamide-timolol combination given twice daily to monotherapy with timolol and dorzolamide. Ophthalmology 1998 Oct; 105(10): 1945–51
Clineschmidt CM, Williams RD, Snyder E, et al. Arandomized trial in aptients inadequately controlled with timolol alone comparing the dorzolamide-timolol combination to monotherapy with timolol or dorzolamide. Ophthalmology 1998 Oct; 105(10): 1952–9
Adamsons I, Clineschmidt C, Polis A, et al. The efficacy and safety of dorzolamide as adjunctive therapy to timolol maleate gellan solution in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. J Glauc 1998 Aug; 7(4): 253–60
Villumsen J, Aim A. The effect of adding prostaglandin F2 alpha-isopropy lester to timolol in patients with open angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol 1990 Aug; 108(8): 1102–5
Lee PY, Shao H, Camras CB, et al. Additivity of prostaglandin F2 alpha-1-isopropyl ester to timolol in glaucoma patients. Ophthalmology 1991 Jul; 98(7): 1079–82
Rulo AH, Greve EL, Hoyng PF. Additive ocular hypotensive effect of latanoprost and acetazolamide: a short-term study in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. Ophthalmology 1997 Sep; 104(9): 1503–7
Alm A, Widengard I, Kjellgren D, et al. Latanoprost administered once daily caused a maintained reduction of intraocular pressure in glaucoma patients treated concomitantly with timolol [see comments]. Br J Ophthalmol 1995 Jan; 79(1): 12–16
Hoyng PF, Rulo A, Greve E, et al. The additive intraocular pressure-lowering effect of latanoprost in combined therapy with other ocular hypotensive agents [review]. Surv Ophthalmol 1997 Feb; 41 Suppl. 2: S93–8
Kimal AM, Topalkara A, Guler C. Additive effect of latanoprost and dorzolamide in patients with elevated intraocular pressure. Int Ophthalmol 1998; 22(1): 37–42
Widengard I, Maepea O, Aim A. Effects of latanoprost and dipifevrin, alone or combined, on intraocular pressure and on blood-aqueous barrier permeability. Br J Ophthalmol 1998 Apr; 82(4): 404–6
Fristrom B, Nilsson SE. Interaction of PhXA41, a new prostaglandin analogue, with pilocarpine: a study on patients with elevated intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol 1993 May; 111(5): 662–5
Villumsen J, Alm A. Effect of the prostaglandin F2alpha analogue PhXA41 in eyes treated with pilocarpine and timolol. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1992; 33 Suppl.: 1248
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hoyng, P.F.J., van Beek, L.M. Pharmacological Therapy for Glaucoma. Drugs 59, 411–434 (2000). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200059030-00003
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200059030-00003