Baseline characteristics of the study participants stratified by hyperopia*
| Baseline characteristics | Total | Sample with emmetropia | Sample with hyperopia | OR (95% CI)† |
| No | 37 179 | 25 786 (69.36) | 11 393 (30.64) | – |
| Age, mean (SD), yrs | 57.36 (8.12) | 55.75 (8.23) | 61.00 (6.53) | 1.09 (1.09 to 1.11) |
| < 60 years, N (%) | 18 938 (50.94) | 15 425 (59.82) | 3513 (30.83) | 1 (Reference) |
| ≥ 60 years, N (%) | 18 241 (49.06) | 10 361 (40.18) | 7880 (69.17) | 3.37 (3.21 to 3.53) |
| Gender, no (%) | ||||
| Female | 19 810 (53.28) | 13 464 (52.21) | 6346 (55.70) | 1 (Reference) |
| Male | 17 369 (46.72) | 12 322 (47.79) | 5047 (44.30) | 0.82 (0.78 to 0.86) |
| Ethnicity, no (%) | ||||
| White | 33 594 (90.36) | 22 856 (89.64) | 10 738 (94.25) | 1 (Reference) |
| Non-white | 3585 (9.64) | 2930 (11.36) | 655 (5.75) | 0.65 (0.59 to 0.71) |
| Townsend index, mean (SD) | −1.01 (3.00) | −0.97 (3.00) | −1.10 (2.99) | 1.01 (1.00 to 1.02) |
| Education level, no (%) | ||||
| College or university degree | 11 106 (29.87) | 8295 (32.17) | 2811 (24.67) | 1 (Reference) |
| Others | 26 073 (70.13) | 17 491 (67.83) | 8582 (75.33) | 1.23 (1.17 to 1.30) |
| Smoking status, no (%) | ||||
| Never | 19 640 (53.29) | 14 035 (54.87) | 5605 (49.69) | 1 (Reference) |
| Former/current | 17 218 (46.71) | 11 543 (45.13) | 5675 (50.31) | 1.15 (1.10 to 1.21) |
| Family history of severe depression, no (%) | ||||
| No | 32 829 (88.30) | 22 781 (88.35) | 10 048 (88.19) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 4350 (11.70) | 3005 (11.65) | 1345 (11.81) | 1.06 (0.99 to 1.14) |
| Physical activity, no (%) | ||||
| Not meeting recommendation | 4845 (16.21) | 3423 (16.35) | 1421 (15.90) | 1 (Reference) |
| Meeting recommendation | 25 036 (83.79) | 17 519 (83.65) | 7517 (84.10) | 0.96 (0.90 to 1.03) |
| Visual impairment | ||||
| No | 36 381 (97.97) | 25 537 (99.12) | 10 844 (95.36) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 754 (2.03) | 226 (0.88) | 528 (4.64) | 4.62 (3.91 to 5.45) |
| History of diabetes, no (%) | ||||
| No | 34 960 (94.03) | 24 278 (94.15) | 10 682 (93.76) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 2219 (5.97) | 1508 (6.24) | 711 (6.24) | 0.86 (0.78 to 0.95) |
| History of hypertension, no (%) | ||||
| No | 9236 (24.84) | 6857 (26.59) | 2379 (20.88) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 27 943 (75.16) | 18 929 (73.41) | 9014 (79.12) | 0.95 (0.90 to 1.01) |
| History of hyperlipidaemia, no (%) | ||||
| No | 19 768 (53.17) | 14 457 (56.07) | 5311 (46.62) | 1 (Reference) |
| Yes | 17 411 (46.83) | 11 329 (43.93) | 6099 (53.38) | 1.02 (0.98 to 1.07) |
*Emmetropia was defined as 0.00 D≤MSE≤ +1.00 D; hyperopia was defined as MSE ≥ +2.00 D.
†Logistic regression models adjusted for age and gender.
D, dioptre; MSE, mean spherical equivalent.;