Association between all-cause mortality and vision impairment, stratified by having received vision treatment
| Model 1 | HR | 95% CI |
| Reference group: normal vision, uncorrected | Ref. | Ref. |
| New cases of VI | ||
| New VI: uncorrected | 1.42 | 1.27 to 1.58 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.87 | 0.70 to 1.09 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 0.87 | 0.63 to 1.20 |
| Pre-existing cases of VI | ||
| Pre-existing VI: uncorrected | 1.26 | 1.13 to 1.40 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.79 | 0.65 to 0.96 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 1.05 | 0.71 to 1.54 |
| Model 2 | HR | 95% CI |
| Reference group: Normal vision, uncorrected | Ref. | Ref. |
| New cases of VI | ||
| New VI: uncorrected | 1.37 | 1.22 to 1.53 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 1.01 | 0.78 to 1.24 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 0.95 | 0.68 to 1.31 |
| Pre-existing cases of VI | ||
| Pre-existing VI: uncorrected | 1.19 | 1.06 to 1.35 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.82 | 0.65 to 1.02 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 1.12 | 0.74 to 1.69 |
| Model 3 | HR | 95% CI |
| Reference group: normal vision, uncorrected | Ref. | Ref. |
| New cases of VI | ||
| New VI: uncorrected | 1.11 | 0.98 to 1.26 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.87 | 0.72 to 1.19 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 0.87 | 0.62 to 1.24 |
| Pre-existing cases of VI | ||
| Pre-existing VI: uncorrected | 1.06 | 0.93 to 1.21 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.77 | 0.60 to 0.98 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 1.26 | 0.82 to 1.93 |
| Model 4 | HR | 95% CI |
| Reference group: normal vision, uncorrected | Ref. | Ref. |
| New cases of VI | ||
| New VI: uncorrected | 1.35 | 1.20 to 1.51 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.99 | 0.78 to 1.25 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 0.94 | 0.68 to 1.31 |
| Pre-existing cases of VI | ||
| Pre-existing VI: uncorrected | 1.20 | 1.06 to 1.35 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.82 | 0.65 to 1.02 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 1.12 | 0.74 to 1.68 |
| Model 5 | HR | 95% CI |
| Reference group: normal vision, uncorrected | Ref. | Ref. |
| New cases of VI | ||
| New VI: uncorrected | 1.35 | 1.21 to 1.52 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.99 | 0.79 to 1.26 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 0.95 | 0.69 to 1.31 |
| Pre-existing cases of VI | ||
| Pre-existing VI: uncorrected | 1.20 | 1.06 to 1.35 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.82 | 0.65 to 1.02 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 1.12 | 0.74 to 1.68 |
| Model 6 | HR | 95% CI |
| Reference group: normal vision, uncorrected | Ref. | Ref. |
| New cases of VI | ||
| New VI: uncorrected | 1.27 | 1.13 to 1.43 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.96 | 0.75 to 1.22 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 0.95 | 0.68 to 1.31 |
| Pre-existing cases of VI | ||
| Pre-existing VI: uncorrected | 1.12 | 0.99 to 1.27 |
| Normal vision: corrected by glasses | 0.83 | 0.66 to 1.04 |
| Normal vision: corrected by cataract surgery | 1.16 | 0.77 to 1.75 |
Data source: China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study 2011, 2013, 2015, 2018. Model 1 was the unadjusted VI-only model; model 2 includes VI with additional covariates of age, sex, other demographic variables (marriage status, residential status, education, area of residence), health status (body mass index, hypertension, number of other comorbidities) and health-related lifestyle (drinking and smoking); based on model 2, models 3–6 further include variables to test the impact of direct/indirect pathways. Model 3 included frailty and disability (direct pathway). Model 4 included the additional variable describing whether the participant fell over the past year (indirect pathway 1). Model 5 included having sought medical care and undergoing a medical examination in the past year (indirect pathway 2), while model 6 included depression and social isolation (indirect pathway 6).
VI, visual impairment.