Association between all-cause mortality and VI: stratified by socioeconomic status
| HR | 95% CI | |
| Model 1 | ||
| New VI | 1.42 | 1.28 to 1.58 |
| Pre-existing VI | 1.29 | 1.17 to 1.44 |
| New VI: male | 1.46 | 1.27 to 1.68 |
| Pre-existing VI: male | 1.29 | 1.17 to 1.44 |
| New VI: female | 1.37 | 1.17 to 1.60 |
| Pre-existing VI: female | 1.27 | 1.08 to 1.48 |
| New VI: rural | 1.32 | 1.17 to 1.49 |
| Pre-existing VI: rural | 1.20 | 1.07 to 1.35 |
| New VI: urban | 1.59 | 1.24 to 2.04 |
| Pre-existing VI: urban | 1.59 | 1.24 to 2.04 |
| New VI: finished high school and above | 0.91 | 0.49 to 1.68 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished high school and above | 0.90 | 0.49 to 1.67 |
| New VI: finished middle school and below | 1.41 | 1.27 to 1.57 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished middle school and below | 1.28 | 1.15 to 1.43 |
| Model 2 | ||
| New VI | 1.36 | 1.21 to 1.51 |
| Pre-existing VI | 1.22 | 1.08 to 1.37 |
| New VI: male | 1.38 | 1.19 to 1.60 |
| Pre-existing VI: male | 1.20 | 1.02 to 1.40 |
| New VI: female | 1.32 | 1.11 to 1.56 |
| Pre-existing VI: female | 1.25 | 1.05 to 1.50 |
| New VI: rural | 1.32 | 1.17 to 1.49 |
| Pre-existing VI: rural | 1.15 | 1.02 to 1.31 |
| New VI: urban | 1.52 | 1.17 to 1.99 |
| Pre-existing VI: urban | 1.55 | 1.16 to 2.08 |
| New VI: finished high school and above | 0.85 | 0.43 to 1.67 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished high school and above | 0.69 | 0.31 to 1.53 |
| New VI: finished middle school and below | 1.38 | 1.23 to 1.54 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished middle school and below | 1.23 | 1.09 to 1.39 |
| Model 3 | ||
| New VI | 1.09 | 0.96 to 1.24 |
| Pre-existing VI | 1.08 | 0.95 to 1.23 |
| New VI: male | 1.15 | 0.98 to 1.36 |
| Pre-existing VI: male | 1.11 | 0.93 to 1.31 |
| New VI: female | 1.00 | 0.82 to 1.22 |
| Pre-existing VI: female | 1.04 | 0.85 to 1.28 |
| New VI: rural | 1.06 | 0.94 to 1.21 |
| Pre-existing VI: rural | 1.02 | 0.89 to 1.18 |
| New VI: urban | 1.21 | 0.88 to 1.67 |
| Pre-existing VI: urban | 1.27 | 0.90 to 1.79 |
| New VI: finished high school and above | 0.46 | 0.19 to 1.14 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished high school and above | 0.52 | 0.20 to 1.34 |
| New VI: finished middle school and below | 1.13 | 0.99 to 1.28 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished middle school and below | 1.10 | 0.97 to 1.26 |
| Model 4 | ||
| New VI | 1.34 | 1.20 to 1.49 |
| Pre-existing VI | 1.22 | 1.08 to 1.37 |
| New VI: male | 1.37 | 1.18 to 1.58 |
| Pre-existing VI: male | 1.20 | 1.02 to 1.40 |
| New VI: female | 1.29 | 1.09 to 1.53 |
| Pre-existing VI: female | 1.25 | 1.04 to 1.50 |
| New VI: rural | 1.30 | 1.15 to 1.47 |
| Pre-existing VI: rural | 1.16 | 1.02 to 1.32 |
| New VI: urban | 1.49 | 1.14 to 1.95 |
| Pre-existing VI: urban | 1.58 | 1.18 to 2.12 |
| New VI: finished high school and above | 0.72 | 0.35 to 1.48 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished high school and above | 0.67 | 0.30 to 1.49 |
| New VI: finished middle school and below | 1.36 | 1.22 to 1.52 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished middle school and below | 1.24 | 1.10 to 1.39 |
| Model 5 | ||
| New VI | 1.34 | 1.20 to 1.50 |
| Pre-existing VI | 1.22 | 1.08 to 1.37 |
| New VI: male | 1.37 | 1.18 to 1.58 |
| Pre-existing VI: male | 1.20 | 1.02 to 1.40 |
| New VI: female | 1.30 | 1.10 to 1.54 |
| Pre-existing VI: female | 1.25 | 1.04 to 1.49 |
| New VI: rural | 1.31 | 1.16 to 1.47 |
| Pre-existing VI: rural | 1.16 | 1.02 to 1.31 |
| New VI: urban | 1.49 | 1.14 to 1.95 |
| Pre-existing VI: urban | 1.59 | 1.19 to 2.14 |
| New VI: finished high school and above | 0.80 | 0.40 to 1.59 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished high school and above | 0.69 | 0.30 to 1.54 |
| New VI: finished middle school and below | 1.36 | 1.22 to 1.52 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished middle school and below | 1.23 | 1.10 to 1.39 |
| Model 6 | ||
| New VI | 1.26 | 1.12 to 1.41 |
| Pre-existing VI | 1.14 | 1.01 to 1.29 |
| New VI: male | 1.29 | 1.11 to 1.50 |
| Pre-existing VI: male | 1.12 | 0.95 to 1.32 |
| New VI: female | 1.22 | 1.02 to 1.45 |
| Pre-existing VI: female | 1.17 | 0.97 to 1.41 |
| New VI: rural | 1.21 | 1.07 to 1.38 |
| Pre-existing VI: rural | 1.08 | 0.95 to 1.23 |
| New VI: urban | 1.45 | 1.09 to 1.91 |
| Pre-existing VI: urban | 1.50 | 1.10 to 2.03 |
| New VI: finished high school and above | 0.66 | 0.32 to 1.37 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished high school and above | 0.58 | 0.25 to 1.37 |
| New VI: finished middle school and below | 1.28 | 1.14 to 1.44 |
| Pre-existing VI: finished middle school and below | 1.16 | 1.02 to 1.31 |
Data source: China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study 2011, 2013, 2015, 2018. Model 1 was the unadjusted VI-only model; model 2 includes VI with the additional covariates of age, sex, other demographic variables (marriage status, residential status, education, area of residence), health status (body mass index, hypertension, number of other comorbidities) and health-related lifestyle (drinking and smoking); based on model 2, models 3–6 further include variables to test the impact of direct/indirect pathways. Model 3 included frailty and disability (direct pathway). Model 4 included the additional variable describing whether the participant fell over the past year (indirect pathway 1). Model 5 included having sought medical care and undergoing a medical examination in the past year (indirect pathway 2), while model 6 included depression and social isolation (indirect pathway 6).
VI, visual impairment.