Early refractive development in humans

doi:10.1016/S0039-6257(95)80027-1

Survey of Ophthalmology

Volume 40, Issue 3, November–December 1995, Pages 207-216

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0039-6257(95)80027-1 Get rights and content

Abstract

Over recent years much interest has been directed toward understanding the process by which refractive errors develop, how this is controlled and the effect of refractive errors on subsequent visual status. There are obvious difficulties in studying such mechanisms in human subjects and for this reason many studies have employed animal models. The present paper compiles the evidence available from human subjects, examining the significance of different aspects of refractive status, normal and abnormal patterns of development and their significance in the development of normal binocular function.

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Epidemiologic data show that refractive development is a dynamic process and that refractive changes occur throughout life at variable rates. During the neonatal period, there is a highly variable distribution of refractive error centered in the hyperopic ranges (Cook and Glasscock, 1951; Saunders, 1995). After the early period of rapid eye growth, the human eye undergoes slow refractive changes, which often lead to the development of myopia (Zadnik, 1997).
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This review aims to disentangle cause and effect in the relationship between anisometropia and amblyopia. Specifically, we examine the literature for evidence to support different possible developmental sequences that could ultimately lead to the presentation of both conditions. The prevalence of anisometropia is around 20% for an inter-ocular difference of 0.5D or greater in spherical equivalent refraction, falling to 2–3%, for an inter-ocular difference of 3D or above. Anisometropia prevalence is relatively high in the weeks following birth, in the teenage years coinciding with the onset of myopia and, most notably, in older adults starting after the onset of presbyopia. It has about one-third the prevalence of bilateral refractive errors of the same magnitude. Importantly, the prevalence of anisometropia is higher in highly ametropic groups, suggesting that emmetropization failures underlying ametropia and anisometropia may be similar.
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Current researchEarly refractive development in humans

Abstract

Vision Res

Vision Res

Vision Res

Am J Ophthalmol

Vision Res

Vision Res

Am J Ophthalmol

Am J Ophthalmol

Vision Res

A longitudinal study of a population based sample of astigmatic children: I. Refraction and amblyopia

Acta Ophthalmol

Changes in astigmatism between the ages of 1 and 4 years: a longitudinal study

Br J Ophthalmol

A longitudinal study of a population based sample of astigmatic children: II. The changeability of anisometropia

Acta Ophthalmol

Refraction changes in children developing convergent or divergent strabismus

Br J Ophthalmol

Prevalence of anisometropia in volunteer laboratory and school screening populations

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci

Measurement in medicine: the analysis of method comparison studies

Statistician

Use of the Canon R-1 autorefractor to measure refractive errors and accommodative responses in infants

Clin Vis Sci

The use of isotropic photorefraction for vision screening in infants

Acta Ophthalmol

Infant precursors of later visual disorders: Correlation or causality?

20th Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology

Screening for refractive errors in 6–9 month old infants by photorefraction

Br J Ophthalmol

A longitudinal study of children with family history of strabismus: factors determining the incidence of strabismus

Br J Ophthalmol

Infant refraction and accommodation

Int Ophthalmol Clin

Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement

The Lancet February

Clinical Refraction

Refractive errors in Hong Kong Chinese pre-school children

Optom Vision Sci

Cycloplegic refractions in infants and young children: The axis of astigmatism

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci

Do glasses prevent emmetropisation in strabismic infants?

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci (suppl)

The refractive status of Hong Kong Chinese infants

Ophthalmic Physiol Opt

Infant videorefraction with off-axis gaze (abstract)

Ophthalmic Physiol Opt (suppl)

Identifying amblyopia using associated conditions acuity and nonacuity features

Am J Optom Physiol Opt

Refractive errors, amblyopia, and development of the visual system in children

Curr Opin Ophthalmol

Meridional amblyopia does result from astigmatism in early childhood

Clin Vis Sci

Astigmatism in children: Changes in axis and amount from birth to six years

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci

Emmetropization and the progression of manifest refraction in children followed from infancy to puberty

Clin Vis Sci

Microtropia

Arch Ophthalmol

Changes in astigmatism during the first eight years of school—an interim report from the Ojai longitudinal study

Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom

Anisometropia: a preliminary report from the Ojai longitudinal study

Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom

Current research
Early refractive development in humans